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對《湄公河泥沙基礎》的評述


原文《Mekong Sediment Basics》由Ilse Pukinskis整理

{前言}

Ilse Pukinskis收集整理了關於湄公河泥沙研究的部分文獻資料,提煉出一些觀點形成本文。在此,小編花費了一點時間將文章翻譯為中文,並加以解讀、擴展補充和評論。翻譯中有時難以找到準確的對應說法,或者為了更好地理解有意延伸。評述過程適當展開,目的是為了更為全面地理解主題。原文並不代表譯者的觀點。

【什麼是泥沙/沉積物】

What are sediments?

Sediments areinorganic materials produced by the weathering and erosion of rocks and soils.They are carried in rivers as either fine sediments carried by water (suspendedload) or coarse 『bedload』 (larger sediment fragments that generally move alongthe bottom of the riverbed) (Mekong River Commission, 2011:43). In a 『natural』river, habitat and species composition are strongly influenced by sediments(MRC, 2011:43; WCD, 2000:78). Between one- and two-thirds of a river』s nitrogenand phosphorus content are attached to fine sediments (MRC, 2011: 43), andnitrogen and phosphorus are essential to ecosystem health and biodiversity.

泥沙是岩石和土壤經風化和侵蝕產生的無機物。它們被河流搬運輸移,細顆粒泥沙懸浮於水中被稱為懸移質泥沙,粗顆粒泥沙(推移質)通常沿河床底部移動。在「自然」河流中,泥沙強烈影響著棲息地和物種組成(MRC,2011:43; WCD,2000:78)。河流中三分之一至三分之二的氮和磷含量附著在細顆粒泥沙上(MRC,2011:43),氮和磷對生態系統健康和生物多樣性至關重要。

The amount ofsediment transported by a river (the sediment load) is lowest during the dryseason and highest during the first months of the flood season, when loosesediments weathered during the dry season are washed into rivers (MRC, 2010).Sediment load is also influenced by population growth, land clearance, land-usechange, reservoir construction and other infrastructural development (Walling,2008). The two major sources of sediment in the Mekong River basin are theLancang sub-basin and the 『3S』 area, which includes the Mekong tributary riversSe Kong, Se San and Sre Pok. These two sources are thought to produceapproximately 70 percent of the sediment found in the Mekong River (Kummu etal., 2010; Clift et al., 2004; MRC, 2010).

河流輸沙量在旱季最低,旱季風化的鬆散泥沙被衝進河流,雨季前幾個月輸沙量最高。輸沙量受到人口增長,土地整治,土地利用變化,水庫建設和其他基礎設施建設的影響。湄公河流域的兩個主要泥沙來源是瀾滄江次流域和「3S」地區,其中包括湄公河支流色公河,色桑河和斯雷波河。這兩個來源被認為產生湄公河中約70%的泥沙(Kummu等,2010; Clift等,2004; MRC,2010)。

Sediment datafor the Mekong is difficult to obtain and there is no definitive study on howmuch sediment is transported through the system (Kummu and Varis, 2007; Kummuet al., 2010). Sediment data down to Pakse is relatively good, and estimatesrange between 150 and170 million tons; but it is not well understood how muchsediment is trapped by the floodplains downstream from Pakse (Kummu and Varis,2007; Liu et al. 2013).

湄公河泥沙數據很難獲得,關於通過湄公河系統輸送的泥沙數量沒有完整可靠的研究(Kummu和Varis,2007; Kummu等,2010)。巴色站的泥沙數據相對較好,估計年輸沙量在1.5億至1.7億噸之間;但是巴色以下洪泛平原沉積了多少泥沙還不太清楚(Kummu and Varis,2007; Liu etal。2013)。

{評述1}關於【什麼是泥沙/沉積物】

本節首先談了泥沙和沉積物的定義。使用「泥沙」對應Sediment,表達在河流系統裡面隨水流運動顆粒狀群體性固體物質,既包括懸浮於水體中運動的懸移質,也有在河床底部滾動、移動、跳躍等運動形式的推移質,並且懸移質和推移質相互轉化。實際上這些物質不僅僅限於「泥」,也不是局限於「沙」,腐敗的草木、岩石的碎片、甚至動物身體的碎片等都可在此範圍內,「泥沙」二字不過是中文裡籠統的對河流系統中輸送的群體性顆粒狀固體物質的總稱。有時採用「沉積物」來表達可能更符合上下文,但它強調了固體物質在河流運動中的一種狀態。本文大部分情況使用 「泥沙」來囊括河流水體中輸移的一切群體性顆粒狀固體物質的集合,有時使用「淤積物」或「沉積物」來表達這些河流輸移物的運動結果或狀態。

傳統觀念裡面泥沙是有害的東西。它們堵塞江河,侵佔湖泊水庫。但是,泥沙作為許多營養物的載體,承擔了河流系統中物質輸移交換的重要角色,河流猶如人體的血管,泥沙猶如紅細胞,血脈需要暢通、紅細胞應該攜帶營養物補給河流生態系統。原文強調:泥沙強烈影響著棲息地和物種組成。河流中三分之一至三分之二的氮和磷含量附著在細顆粒泥沙上,氮和磷對生態系統健康和生物多樣性至關重要。這個定位,是認識河流泥沙問題的重要基點。

有了「泥沙」的生態定位,我們自然而然好理解這種現象:一些過去研究泥沙的專家,簡單的分析含沙量和魚的種類數量採樣數據的相關關係,就可以號稱魚類專家或生態專家。實際上,泥沙這門學科具有很強的跨界交叉特點,相關專業背景的人都可跨入,反之,過去深入研究泥沙運動理論的一些學者,也紛紛涉獵相關領域,成為諸如環境科學等方面的專家。

其次,對流域產沙的時空特性有所提及。流域產沙的直接原因是「岩石和土壤經風化和侵蝕」,河流搬運輸移的直接動力是流動的水。由此可知,決定河流輸沙量的兩大因素是「沙源」和「輸移能力」。

(1)時間上看,往往是「雨季的前幾個月輸沙量最高」,此時,流域在旱季儲備了大量的泥沙供應,雨季一旦來臨,河流輸沙量自然水漲船高,和流域產水過程具有某種程度的同步性。到了雨季中後期,如果沒有新增加的泥沙供應,相同的洪水卻帶不了相同的泥沙,如果有大量的滑坡、河岸侵蝕之類產生的「供給源」,相同的洪水可以帶走更多的泥沙。可見,流域無論產水或產沙,都不是簡單的線性思維模式。許多研究了一輩子水文或泥沙的學者,糾結在那些複雜的「非線性模型」上,或關注影響產水產沙或輸移的關鍵因子的分析,或求解複雜的非線性方程。

另外,由於經濟發展人類活動增加,流域產沙往往有明顯的增加。中國境內許多水文站的泥沙沙量在改革開放後的1980、1990年代普遍性的有增加趨勢,瀾滄江上的水文數據也不例外。當然,隨著國家對生態環境保護重視或經濟發展依賴環境資源模式的調整而有所改變。

(2)空間上看,原文認為瀾滄江-湄公河流域的重點產沙區是瀾滄江流域和寮國柬埔寨交界的色公河,色桑河和斯雷波河(三條河流名稱以S開頭,即所謂3S地區。

強調一下:決定河流輸沙量的兩大因素是「沙源」和「輸移能力」。

通常,流域上游地形複雜,地勢起伏,高差懸殊,地質構造及變質作用強烈,物理、化學風化作用強烈。加上地形陡峻,水流湍急,泥沙的「沙源」和「輸移能力」都較大,往往成為泥沙的主要產區。中游地區如果人類活動頻繁則會加劇泥沙侵蝕和輸移。下游地區是河流上游泥沙沉積造陸的結果(通常稱為沖積平原),即使人口密集,雨量充沛,土質疏鬆,沙源供應可能仍然充分,但地形平緩、湖泊眾多,水勢平緩,洲灘密布,入海口河段水位還受到海洋頂托,河流泥沙「輸移能力」明顯下降,因此,河流沙量一般有所減少或增加緩慢。

從實測數據看,瀾滄江占湄公河流域面積不足20%,以允景洪站為代表,其年輸沙量一般在9000萬噸,假設有關文獻資料認為湄公河入海泥沙約1.5-1.7億噸是符合實際的,那麼,瀾滄江流域泥沙占湄公河泥沙50%以上的結論是可以接受的,也符合流域產沙空間分布的一般規律。

最後,反映了湄公河流域泥沙研究的基礎數據匱乏的現狀。中國境內的瀾滄江泥沙觀測站點數量、觀測年限等較多較長,測驗和整編質量較高。但中國境外的泥沙數據非常稀少,質量不高。國際上非常關注的瀾滄江大壩對泥沙的影響評價就建立在這樣一個數據不一致的基礎上,得到的結論也非常有爭議。最簡單的例子,湄公河入海口到底有多少泥沙輸移量並沒有非常準確的數據,中國境內產生的泥沙占湄公河入海口處的比例就難以衡量。

各種組織機構和湄公河國家自身對泥沙問題非常關注,但奇怪的是那麼多援助經費中,卻沒有看到花在泥沙觀測上,拿不出高質量的觀測數據說話。還好,最近有消息說在中國倡議的瀾湄合作機制下在寮國建設成立了水資源信息數據中心,我們期待著今後湄公河水文泥沙觀測進入一個新時代。

【大壩和水庫的淤積效應】

How does sedimentation affect dams and dam reservoirs?

A river』senergy, and therefore its capacity to carry sediment, is determined by the flowand speed of the river. When a river slows down, such as when it enters areservoir, it drops suspended sediment or loses its capacity to move heaviersediments. The physical barrier created by dams results in sediment 『trapping』behind dam walls (MRC, 2009; Morris and Fan, 1997; Thorne et al., 2011; Fu etal., 2008).

河流的能量,也就是其攜帶泥沙的能力,取決於河流的流量和速度。當一條河流減速時,比如進入水庫時,會使懸浮泥沙沉積,或者喪失移動較重沉積物的能力。水壩造成的物理障礙導致泥沙淤積在壩後(MRC,2009; Morris和Fan,1997; Thorne等,2011; Fu等,2008)。

Sedimentationis a serious concern for dam planners and engineers, as it reduces reservoirstorage capacity. If left unchecked, it will eventually cancel out the dam』scapacity to regulate water flow and supply, thereby negating many of itsintended benefits, be they for hydropower, irrigation, recreation or otherpurposes (Morris and Fan, 1997; Thorne et al., 2011; V?r?smarty et al., 1997).

泥沙淤積對大壩規劃者和工程師是一個嚴重的問題,因為它降低了水庫的儲水能力。如果放任不管,大壩調節水資源供應的能力將最終消失,從而達不到預期效益,如發電,灌溉,休閑娛樂或其他用途(Morris和Fan,1997; Thorne等,2011;V?r?smarty等,1997)。

Dam builders try to compensate for sedimenttrapping by ensuring that there is enough 『dead storage』 in a reservoir forsediment deposits. This means that the reservoir only retains the full volumeof water that it was designed for at the beginning of the dam』s life. In spiteof dead storage, as time goes by sediment accumulates and the dam continues tolose storage capacity until the impoundment area is filled with sediment(Morris and Fan, 1997; Thorne et al., 2011; Fu et al., 2008).

大壩建設者試圖通過確保有足夠大的「死庫容」來應付泥沙淤積。這意味著水庫僅在初期擁有設計蓄水量。儘管有死庫容,但隨著時間的推移,泥沙的累積淤積,大壩持續喪失蓄水能力,直到蓄水區填滿淤積物(Morris和Fan,1997; Thorne等,2011; Fu等,2008)。

【湄公河大壩是如何堵塞泥沙的?】

Sediment loads are an importanttransboundary concern. A number of studies suggest that sediment delivery fromthe upper Mekong has decreased in recent years, although they differ on theextent of this change. Some suggest the figure could be as high as a 50 percentreduction at the dam site since the completion of the Manwan Dam on the LancangJiang River in 1993 (Lu and Siew, 2006; Fu and He, 2007; Kummu and Varis, 2007;Adamson, 2009; Wang, et al., 2011).

輸沙量涉及到重要的跨界問題。大量研究表明,近年來湄公河上游的輸沙量有所減少,儘管這種變化的程度有所不同。有人認為,自1993年瀾滄江漫灣大壩竣工以來,這個數字可能會高達50%。(Lu andSiew,2006; Fu andHe,2007; Kummuand Varis,2007;Adamson,2009; Wang等人,2011)。

Damsare highly efficient at trapping sediments. The Man-wan Dam lost 20 percent ofits storage capacity to sediment deposits during the first ten years ofoperation, represent-ing a loss of 20 million cubic meters of sediment to themainstream Mekong. It is estimated that the completed Lancang cascade of damswill trap some 90 percent of the upper Mekong sediment contribution to thelower basin (Kummu and Varis, 2007; MRC, 2010:73).

大壩攔截泥沙的效率非常高。漫灣大壩運行的前10年里損失了20%的庫容,代表了湄公河幹流2000萬立方米的泥沙損失。據估計,作用於流域下游的上湄公河泥沙,約90%被瀾滄江已建梯級大壩攔截(Kummu and Varis,2007; MRC,2010:73)。

Whenestimating the rates of sediment accumulation in reservoirs, it is important toaccount for 『trapping effi-ciency』, how this may change over time, and how damsupstream of the reservoir in question might reduce sediment delivery to adownstream reservoir (MRC, 2009:16). Es-timates suggest that as much as 50percent of the Mekong sediment load will be removed by hydropower projects inChina and the 3S rivers alone. Should all twelve Lower Mekong Basin (LMB)mainstream dams be constructed, the sediment load could be halved again (ICEM,2010; MRC, 2011).

在估算泥沙累積淤積速率時,關鍵是估計「攔沙率」,它如何隨時間變化?由於上游水庫造成下游沙量如何減少?(MRC,2009:16)。由於中國境內和3S河地區的水電工程湄公河輸沙量估計減少了50%以上。下湄公河幹流上12座大壩建成後,輸沙量可能再次減半(ICEM,2010;MRC,2011)。

Theseestimates are considered conservative in light of the uncertainty surroundingi) our current understanding of fine sediment transport, and ii) our currentunderstanding of the trapping efficiencies of lower Mekong mainstream dams andin-reservoir sediment dynamics (ICEM, 2010:77; Kummu et al., 2010:182; Roberts,2004).

由於如下不確定性1)我們目前對細顆粒泥沙輸移的認識,2)我們目前對下湄公河幹流大壩的攔沙率堤壩和水庫泥沙動力學的理解(ICEM,2010:77; Kummu等人,2010:182; Roberts,2004),以上是保守的估計。

Itis important to note that any attempt to predict future sediment loads in theMekong basin is complicated by limited data availability, sediment modelaccuracy, uncer-tainty surrounding future land-use changes and global warming,as well as natural variability (Thorne et al., 2011; Adamson, 2009).

值得注意的是,任何預測湄公河未來輸沙量的嘗試都是錯綜複雜的,它受制於數據可用性,泥沙模型精度,未來土地利用變化的不確定性,以及全球變暖和自然變化(Thorne等,2011;

Adamson,2009)。

【水庫淤積會帶來什麼影響?】

Whatare the impacts of reservoir sedimentation?

Damsalter the capacity of a river to transport sediment and also decrease theamount of sediment available for transport (Kummu and Varis, 2007). Substantialreductions in sedi-ment supply can trigger widespread changes to the shape,course and structure of a river that will impact upon habitats, ecosystems andagricultural productivity (MRC, 2011). Downstream of the reservoir, impactsoften include chang-es to basin ecology, water transparency, sediment balance,the amount of available nutrients and the river』s course (Morris and Fan,1997). Changes in sediment load and flow can be especially detrimental tocoastal and offshore zones (ICEM, 2010; Fu et al., 2008; MRC, 2011; MRC, 2009).

大壩改變了河流運輸泥沙的能力,也減少了輸移泥沙的數量(Kummu and Varis,2007)。泥沙的大量減少能導致河流形狀、流程、結構等廣泛改變,從而影響生境,生態系統和農業生產力(MRC,2011)。水庫下游的影響通常包括流域生態學變化,水體透明度,泥沙平衡,可利用的營養物數量和河流流程(Morris和Fan,1997)。(ICEM,2010; Fu等,2008; MRC,2011; MRC,2009)。輸沙量和流量的變化對沿海和近海區域特別有害。

【大壩如何影響水庫容量和功能】

How will dams impact onreservoir capacity and dam functioning?

Anestimated one percent of existing reservoir storage volume in the world is lostto sedimentation each year. This loss of storage capacity is detrimental forhydro-power dams as it reduces the volume of water that can be captured in areservoir for energy generation (Morris and Fan, 1997; Fu et al., 2008).

據估計泥沙淤積導致全球水庫容量每年損失1%。庫容損失導致水庫蓄水減少從而減少發電量。

Thefirst sediments to deposit in a reservoir will be large,coarsesediment (small stones, grit and gravel). The first dams built on a river willgenerally accumulate more sediment because there are no upstream dams to trapit (ICEM, 2010). Sedimentation may affect a dam』s me-chanical equipment,including reservoir floodgates and turbine intakes, and compromise theirstructural integrity (MRC, 2009). Run-of-river hydropower dams do not suf-ferfrom such problems as much as reservoir dams, because they are not designed tocreate reservoirs. Run-of-river dams still slow a river』s flow rate, causingsediment to be deposited, but at a potentially slower rate than in reservoirdams. Run-of-river dam designers must still be aware of potential damage toturbines and other mechanical equip-ment (Morris and Fan, 1997). Dam designerstry to mini-mize sediment deposition to ensure the longevity of dam operations,as well as structural safety (MRC, 2009; Mor-ris and Fan, 1997).

首先淤積在水庫中的是粗顆粒沉積物(小石頭,砂礫和沙礫)。由於沒有上游水壩來攔截,因此建在河流上的第一座大壩通常會積累更多的淤積物(ICEM,2010)。淤積物可能會影響大壩的機械設備,包括水庫閘門和水輪機進口,並影響其結構完整性(MRC,2009)。徑流式大壩並不像水庫式大壩那樣受到這些問題的困擾,因為它們不是為了建造水庫而設計。徑流式水壩仍然減緩了河流的流速,導致泥沙沉積,但淤積速率比水庫大壩慢。徑流式大壩的設計者還必須意識到水輪機和其他機械設備的潛在損害(Morris和Fan,1997)。大壩設計者盡量減少泥沙的淤積,以確保大壩長久運行以及結構安全(MRC,2009; Morrisris和Fan,1997)。

{評述2}

確實,河流攜帶泥沙的能力,取決於河流的流量和速度。大壩,攔截河流,抬高水位,一方面直接減緩河流流動速度,另一方面可以形成水庫和蓄水能力,以改變水沙過程。為了供水、發電、灌溉等「興利」目的,往往需要設置足夠大的調節庫容,調節庫容指水庫死水位(水庫正常運行時水位降落的低限,該水位以下的庫容為死庫容)到正常蓄水位(水庫正常運行時蓄水的水位高限)之間的庫容,其作用就是將來水的自然過程根據生產生活需要加以調節和改變。大壩影響「河流的流量和速度」的指標,直觀上可以想像是「壩高」和「調節庫容」,兩者越大,對河流的流量、速度影響越大。通常,「壩高」又往往與「調節庫容」相輔相成,在忽略水面寬度隨高程變化前提下,可以粗略地將大壩影響河流泥沙輸移的因子歸結為一個指標,即「調節庫容」。

但是,相同的調節庫容,面對不同的河流水量,其改變水量過程的能力是天差地別的。因此,來水量與調節庫容(或者反過來,調節庫容與來水量)的比值,成為了許多水庫攔沙率經驗曲線和公式的核心因子。

與經濟學中的「需求」與「供應」的關係類似,自然界中水資源的「供應」與生產生活中的「需求」之間,總是不平衡的(由此引發的一個爭議:市場經濟中看不見的手來調節供需,還是計劃經濟人為的調節?),解決之道就是設一個平衡供水需水矛盾的水庫,其協調供需矛盾的能力取決於水庫的「調節庫容」的大小。由於自然界的來水(供應量)和人類的需求量都存在一定的隨機性,為好地滿足人類用水需求,「調節庫容」是必須的,容量還要足夠大。這就是在傳統的河流梯級開發理念中,設置大型骨幹調節水庫的原因。高壩大庫是順理成章的。

從河流泥沙輸移的角度看,則希望大壩越低越好,水庫的調節能力越小越好,這樣對河流泥沙的輸移影響最小。因此,傳統的高壩大庫的河流開發理念過度傾向於人類的需求,隨著社會經濟的發展將逐步弱化。

看來,魚與熊掌不可兼得,只能有所偏重。

原文認為:

「大壩建設者試圖通過確保有足夠大的死庫容來應付泥沙淤積。這意味著水庫僅在初期擁有設計蓄水量。儘管有死庫容,但隨著時間的推移,泥沙的累積淤積,大壩持續喪失蓄水能力,直到蓄水區填滿淤積物。」

顯然,原文混淆了死庫容和調節庫容的作用。大壩持續的蓄水能力體現在長期保持調節庫容而不是死庫容。著名的三峽工程為了長期保留必要的調節庫容(注意不是死庫容),做了大量的研究。中國大量水庫採取「蓄清排渾」的措施被證明是有效的。

除了調節庫容以外,死庫容猶如盲腸空間,除非採取必要的措施,進入其中的水沙在一定年限內可以視為「沉沒成本」,直到死庫容被泥沙淤積侵佔殆盡。大部分水庫的死庫容設計不是為了解決淤沙問題,而是從取水高程、發電水頭、通航最低水位等要求出發,即為了發揮水庫興利作用有一個最低的水庫運行水位。

水庫往往採用「蓄清排渾」、「空庫溯源沖沙」、「機械清淤」等多種手段來解決淤積問題。一些水庫受沖沙條件限制,為了在設計使用壽命內不受泥沙淤積影響調節庫容(興利庫容)來確定死水位,但這不意味著防止水庫調節庫容被泥沙淤積侵佔的優先措施是設立足夠大的死庫容。本質上它是以時間換空間,死水位需要權衡興利要求、經濟、淹沒、生態環保等合理取捨。

【淤積物如何影響流域的棲息地?】

Howwill sedimentation impact on river basin habitats?

Damsthat trap sediment will release water with a reduced sediment load and,therefore, excess capacity to transport materials (Kondolf, 2008). Known as『sediment hungry』 water, this water erodes riverbeds and banks until the watercan no longer carry materials, at which point a new equi-librium will bereached. In the Mekong, it is expected that this process will result incoarsening of the streambed and widespread changes to river habitats, includingthe elimina-tion of many fish spawning beds. This process could poten-tiallyhave widespread impacts, reaching down to Vietnam』s highly productive foodproducing delta (MRC, 2010; MRC, 2009; Kummu and Varis, 2007; Roberts, 2004;Thorne et al., 2011; WCD, 2000; Morris and Fan, 1997). Whether or not this willhappen has yet to be seen.

大壩攔截泥沙後,下泄水流的泥沙含量將減少,水流的挾沙能力過剩(Kondolf,2008)。這種被稱為「飢餓的水」,會侵蝕河床和河岸(以補充水體中的泥沙),直到水不能再攜帶更多的泥沙,此時將達到新的平衡。在湄公河流域,預計這一過程將導致河床粗化,大量改變河流的棲息地,包括許多魚類產卵床的消亡。這一過程可能會產生廣泛的影響,(甚至)會影響越南高產糧食生產三角洲。是否會發生還有待觀察。

Notall the potential impacts are entirely negative. For ex-ample, sedimenttrapping may prove beneficial to some aquatic ecosystems, such as coastalmarine ecosystems, which might otherwise be harmed by excessively high levelsof suspended sediment in water (Rogers, 1990; Mor-ris and Fan, 1997).

並非所有的潛在影響都是消極的。例如,攔截泥沙可能對一些水生生態系統有益,例如沿海海洋生態系統,可能會因水中懸移質泥沙含量過高而受到損害(Rogers,1990; Morrisris和Fan,1997)。

【大壩導致懸移質含沙量的減少是如何影響湄公河流域的?】

Howwill reduced suspended sediment concentrations caused by dams impact on theMekong basin?

Suspendedsediments contain nutrients that are essential to maintaining river systems. Alarge proportion of the phos-phorus and nitrogen found in a river areassociated with sediments (Koponen et al., 2010; Lu and Siew, 2006; Thorne etal., 2011) Phosphorus is important because it controls primary production infreshwater ecosystems. Precise esti-mates of the amount of phosphorus andnitrogen attached to sediments in the Mekong are difficult to make due to alack of data on nutrient binding and the size of particles involved. It isestimated, however, that about two-thirds of the phosphorus in the Mekong isassociated with sediments (MRC, 2011; Thorne et al., 2011). Some estimates putthe fine-sized suspended sediment load delivered to the Mekongfloodplainsand delta at 26,400 tonnes per year (ICEM, 2010).

懸移質泥沙含有維持河流系統所必需的營養物質。在河流中發現的大量磷和氮與泥沙有關。(Koponen等,2010; Lu和Siew,2006; Thorne等,2011)磷是重要的,因為它控制淡水生態系統的初級生產。由於缺乏關於營養物質結合和所涉及顆粒大小的數據,難以精確估計湄公河泥沙中磷和氮的數量。但據估計,湄公河約有三分之二的磷與泥沙有關(MRC,2011; Thorne等,2011)。據估計,湄公河洪泛平原和三角洲的細顆粒懸移質泥沙量為26,400噸/年(ICEM,2010)。

Damsdecrease the concentration of suspended solids in rivers, thereby reducing theamount of nutrients available downstream (Koponen et al., 2010; Lu and Siew,2006; Thorne et al., 2011; MRC, 2011; Rosenberg et al., 1997; Nikula, 2005). Itis estimated that if Cambodia, Laos, Thai-land and Vietnam were to proceed withthe construction of 11 mainstream and 71 tributary dams (in addition to the sixexisting mainstream Chinese dams), the fine-sized sus-pended sediment load ofthe Mekong would be reduced by 75% (to approximately 6,600 tonnes per year).Approxi-mately 25% of this reduction would be a result of mainstream damconstruction (ICEM, 2010). Alternatively, during pe-riods when water isreleased, areas downstream of dams will experience unnaturally highconcentrations of sediment and associated nutrients (MRC, 2011).

大壩降低了河流懸浮物的濃度,從而減少了下游可利用的營養物質量(Koponen等,2010; Lu和Siew,2006; Thorne等,2011; MRC,2011; Rosenberg等,1997; Nikula,2005)。據估計,如果柬埔寨,寮國,泰國和越南正在進行11個幹流和71個支流水壩的建設(除了現有的6個主流中國水壩)外,湄公河將減少75%(至每年約6,600噸)。這個減少量大約有25%是幹流大壩建設的結果(ICEM,2010)。或者,在泄流過程中,水壩下游的地區會出現異常高濃度的泥沙和相關營養物質(MRC,2011)。

Reducedsediment loads will impact on both natural and human environments. In thefollowing sections we examine some of these impacts in depth.

輸沙量的減少將會影響自然環境和人類環境。在下面的章節中,我們將深入探討其中的一些影響。

【漁業和水生物種】

Fisheriesand aquatic species

Trappingof sediments may decrease the biological produc-tivity of rivers. Upstream ofdams, increased sediment loads will alter reservoir ecology, affecting thequantity and type of fish present (Kummu and Varis, 2007; Morris and Fan, 1997;WCD, 2000). Most Mekong fish species lay eggs that attach to the riverbed, soincreased sediment and silt may bury or damage eggs (MRC, 2011; MRC, 2010;ICEM, 2010; Roberts, 2004).

泥沙被攔截可能會降低河流的生物生產力。大壩上游,沉積物的增加會改變水庫生態,影響魚類的數量和種類(Kummu and Varis,2007; Morris and Fan,1997; WCD,2000)。大多數湄公河魚類產卵附著在河床上,因此增加的淤積物和可能會掩埋或破壞魚卵(MRC,2011; MRC,2010; ICEM,2010; Roberts,2004)。

Downstream of dams, sediment trapping could lead to adecline in both biodiversity and productivity of fish and other aquatic species.Adapted to the sediment-rich condi-tions of the Mekong basin, fish and otheraquatic species may not be able to adjust to changes to their feeding andspawning grounds (Kummu and Varis, 2007; Morris and Fan, 1997; WCD, 2000).Reduced nutrient availability will affect aquatic plant growth, a major sourceof food for Mekong fish and an important component of fishery food chains (MRC,2011, 2010; ICEM, 2010; Roberts, 2004). Negative impacts on marine fisheriesare also a possibility (MRC, 2011; Hai et al., 2009).

大壩攔截泥沙可能導致下游魚類和其他水生物種的生物多樣性和生產力下降。湄公河流域中適應多泥沙條件的魚類和其他水生物種可能無法適應其飼養和產卵場的變化(Kummu and Varis,2007; Morris and Vars,1997; WCD,2000)。營養物質供應減少將影響水生植物生長,這是湄公河魚類的主要食物來源,也是漁業食品的重要組成部分(MRC,2011,2010; ICEM,2010; Roberts,2004)。對海洋漁業的負面影響也是一種可能(MRC,2011; Hai等,2009)。

Downstreamof Vietnam』s Yali Falls dams, Cambodian communities have reported dramaticdeclines in fish catch-es since the dam』s construction. The fisheries declinehas been linked to increased turbidity and sediment loads (a result of sedimenthungry waters eroding riverbanks), which has smothered algal growth. Highsediment loads have resulted in sediment deposition and in-filling of importantfish habitats: there has also been a negative impact on fish species thatcannot tolerate high sediment loads (Wyatt and Baird, 2007).

柬埔寨社區報告說,越南亞里瀑布水壩的下游大壩建設以來,捕魚量急劇下降。漁業的下滑與渾濁度和輸沙量增加有關(含沙量遠遠達不到其挾沙能力的水體侵蝕河岸,中國通常描述為「清水沖刷」,國外常用詞「飢餓之水」),從而阻礙了藻類的生長。高輸沙量導致重要魚類棲息地被淤積物填埋:對不能承受高輸沙量的魚類也有負面影響(Wyatt and Baird,2007)。

【農業】

Agriculture

When rivers flood they deposit sediments onfloodplains. Floodplains are highly fertile and play an important role inagricultural productivity. Reductions in suspended sediment load and associatednutrients will also impact on the region』s agricultural productivity (ICEM,2010; MRC, 2011). Im-mediate impacts on regional rice production are expectedto be 『modest』, but long-term impacts may be more serious. Reduced sedimentloads will also result in the loss of agri-cultural land in inundated areas,riverbank gardens and floodplains. The poor will be most affected by theselosses of agricultural land (ICEM, 2010; Hai et al., 2009).

當河流泛濫時,泥沙淤積在洪泛平原上。洪泛區土地肥沃,在農業生產力中發揮著重要作用。伴隨懸移質泥沙減少,相應養分減少,也將影響該地區的農業生產力(ICEM,2010; MRC,2011)。預計對區域水稻生產的影響是「中等」,但長期影響可能更為嚴重。水流中輸沙量的減少也將導致洪水淹沒區內的農業用地、沿岸果園和洪積平原的喪失。這些農業用地的損失對窮人影響最大(ICEM,2010; Hai等,2009)。

【航運】Navigation

Commercialand recreational navigation will be impacted by sediment accumulation at locks,delta areas, marinas and boat ramps during periods when sediment-laden water isreleased from dams (Morris and Fan, 1997). During periods of water storage,when dam gates are closed, it is likely that destabilization of riverbanks andbed erosion by sediment hungry waters downstream of dams will have adetrimental impact on navigation in the Mekong Delta, an area of high rivertransport use (ICEM, 2010).

商業和休閑航行將受到累積性淤積的影響,三角洲地區,遊艇碼頭和船隻斜坡的,這些沉積物從水壩中釋放出來(Morris和Fan,1997)。在蓄水期間,當大壩關閉時,水壩下游的沉積物飢餓水域可能會導致河床不穩定和河床侵蝕,這將對湄公河三角洲地區的航運產生不利影響。,2010)。

However,it is possible that sediment trapping will have a positive impact on navigationby reducing the amount of sediment deposited into channels that serve asnavigation routes (Hori, 2000).

當然,攔截泥沙也有正面影響,可減少航道內的淤積量。

【柬埔寨洪泛平原和洞里薩湖系統】

Cambodianfloodplains and Tonle Sap system

Theseasonal flooding of the Cambodian floodplains, includ-ing the Tonle Sap Lake,is the basis of the Mekong』s high productivity. Every year, approximately 80percent of the sediment and nutrients entering the lake system are retainedafter flood waters recede. This natural fertilization contributes greatly toagricultural and fisheries productivity (MRC, 2005; Sarkkula et al., 2003;Kummu et al., 2008; Nikula 2005; Zalinge et al., 2003; Sarkkula et al., 2003;Zalinge et al., 2003).

對於柬埔寨洪泛平原和洞里薩湖,季節性洪水是湄公河高生產率的基礎。每年在洪水退下之後,大約80%進入湖泊系統的泥沙和營養物質被保留下來。這種自然施肥極大地促進了農業和漁業的生產力(MRC,2005; Sarkkula等,2003; Kummu等,2008; Nikula 2005; Zalinge等,2003; Sarkkula等,2003;Zalinge等,2003)。

Decreasedsuspended sediment concentrations pose a serious risk to nutrient balance inthe lake, and therefore to the sys-tem』s productivity (ICEM, 2010; Sarkkula etal., 2003; Ko-ponen et al., 2010). A decrease in the fertility of the floodedforests that serve as important habitats and breeding grounds for fish willreduce the size of fish landings (Kummu et al., 2008). If all plannedmainstream and tributary dams are built, it is estimated that productivity inlarge areas of the Cambo-dian floodplains will be halved (Koponen et al.,2010).

懸移質泥沙濃度的降低對湖泊養分平衡造成了嚴重的風險,因此對系統的生產力造成了嚴重的風險(ICEM,2010; Sarkkula等人,2003; Ko-ponen等人,2010)。季節性洪水淹沒的森林,它們作為魚類重要棲息地和繁殖地,其肥力下降將減少魚類的著陸面積(Kummu et al。,2008)。如果所有有計劃的主流和支流水壩都建成,估計柬埔寨大部分洪泛平原的生產力將減半(Koponen等,2010)。

【越南三角洲】

VietnamDelta

Some studies estimate that79 million metric tonnes of sediments reach Vietnam』s Mekong Delta each year,of which 9 to 13 million tonnes are deposited on floodplains and the restcontributes to the enlargement of the delta and fertilizing coastal fisheries(Huang and Tamai, 1999; Fox and Sneddon, 2005). Sediment deposited in shallowcoast- al waters protects the coastal from wave-induced erosion. Reducedsediment supply will increase coastal erosion (Wolanski et al., 1996), aprocess that is likely to be made worse by sea level rise due to climatechange. Bank erosion downstream of reservoirs as a result of sediment hungrywater will only partially compensate for sediments that become trapped inreservoirs (MRC, 2010:73). An esti-mated one million people will be directlyaffected by coastal erosion and land loss in the Mekong Delta by 2050(IPCC,2007).

一些研究估計,每年有7900萬噸的泥沙到達越南的湄公河三角洲,其中900-130萬噸淤積在洪泛平原上,其餘的則有助於三角洲和沿海漁業肥料的擴大(Huang和Tamai,1999; Fox和Sneddon,2005)。沉積在淺海的泥沙保護了海岸免受波浪侵蝕。沙量減少供應將增加海岸侵蝕(Wolanski等,1996),這一過程很可能因氣候變化導致的海平面上升而變差。由於水體中泥沙量的減少造成「清水沖刷」,攔截在水庫中的泥沙只能通過侵蝕水庫下游的河岸來替代補償(MRC,2010:73)。到2050年,估計有100萬人將直接受到湄公河三角洲海岸侵蝕和土地流失的影響(IPCC,2007)。

Vietnameseagriculture and marine capture fisheries are dependent on sediment for nutrienttransport (Wild and Loucks, 2012; ICEM, 2010). A reduction in sediment load islikely to imply significant costs for both agriculture and marine fisheries.Agricultural development and urbanization may provide alternative sources ofnutrients, but the precise impacts of these on the delta are not wellunderstood (ICEM, 2010).

越南農業和海洋捕撈漁業依賴泥沙輸移養分(Wild and Loucks,2012; ICEM,2010)。輸沙量的減少可能意味著使農業和海洋漁業成本大幅提高。農業發展和城市化可提供替代的營養源,但對三角洲的確切影響尚不清楚(ICEM,2010)。

【水庫庫容可永續維持嗎?】

Canreservoir capacity be sustained?

Whilethe sedimentation of reservoirs is often considered an irreversible process,water supplies and electricity gener-ated from dam projects cannot be consideredsustainable unless the sedimentation process is controlled (Morris and Fan,1997).

雖然水庫的淤積往往被認為是一個不可逆轉的過程,但是除非淤積過程得到控制,否則大壩項目所產生的供水和電力是不可持續的(Morris和Fan,1997)。

Ideally,dams will be built in a way that minimizes their tendency to retain sediment,thereby reducing impacts on the environment and agricultural productivity, aswell as reducing potential liability for compensation payments to downstreamstakeholders (MRC, 2011). Sustainable sedi-ment management will take intoaccount the watershed, river, reservoir and dam in question and the cumulativeimpacts of dam cascades. The process would include a sedimentation assessment(Morris and Fan, 1997), consid-eration of appropriate site selection and damdesign, and an operation strategy and consistent monitoring and manage-ment(MRC, 2009).

理想情況下,大壩的建設應儘可能減少淤積,從而減少對環境和農業生產力的影響,並減少向下游利益相關者支付賠償的潛在責任(MRC,2011)。可持續的泥沙管理將考慮到所涉及的流域,河流,水庫和大壩以及梯級的累積影響。該過程將包括淤積評估(Morris和Fan,1997),考慮適當的選址和大壩設計,以及運行方式和持續的泥沙監測和管理(MRC,2009)。

Toavoid sedimentation, and preserve relatively normal nutrient transport patternsto downstream areas and limiting morphological impacts, dams must be cleared ofsediment regularly (Thorne et al., 2011). Removing and disposing of sedimentsthat have accumulated in reservoirs is an expen-sive and difficult process(Morris and Fan, 1997). There are several options for sediment removal,including sediment routing, sediment bypass, sediment flushing (or sluicing),mechanical removal and sediment traps (MRC, 2009). Dams can significantlyreduce sediment problems by building flushing gates into the dam wall. Theseare located at the base of the wall, and are opened periodically to letsediments out of the reservoir. This will also, to some extent, help ensurethat beneficial uses of sediment downstream can be maintained. Virtually nodams on the Mekong, however, have flushing gates, in part because it increasesdam con-struction costs, and because that would mean that some portion of thereservoir water would be used for flushing and not for electricity generation.

為了避免淤積,保持向下游地區相對正常的營養運輸模式,限制河床變形影響,大壩必須定期清除淤積物(Thorne et al。,2011)。去除和處理淤積在水庫中的淤積物是一個昂貴和困難的過程(Morris和Fan,1997)。有多種淤積物去除方式可供選擇,包括排沙,旁通分流,沖沙(或沖洗),機械清除和攔截(MRC,2009)。在壩體上設立沖沙閘可以顯著減少淤積物問題。它們位於底部,並定期打開,讓淤積物從水庫中排出。這也將在一定程度上幫助確保對下游有益用途的泥沙得以維持其輸移。然而,湄公河上幾乎沒有水壩有沖水閘門,部分原因是它增加了水壩的建設成本,因為這意味著水庫的一部分水將用於沖沙而不用於發電。

Damplanners must determine which method is appropriate for each dam. Managingsediment in a cascade of dams will require coordination between governmentauthorities, dam planners and operators and the many agencies advocating onbehalf of environmental health as well as the livelihoods of people who derivea living from the river and its ecosys-tems (MRC, 2009).

大壩規劃人員必須根據每個大壩情況採取合適的方法。梯級大壩的泥沙管理,需要政府當局,大壩規劃者和運行者之間的協作,以及眾多倡導環境健康、人從河流及其生態系統中謀生的機構的配合(MRC,2009)。

【其他方法可以緩解輸沙量減少的問題嗎?】

Can reductions in sedimentloads be mitigated through other processes?

One idea in circulation isthat increased fertilizer use could compensate for reductions in nutrients dueto decreased suspended sediment concentrations. This has yet to be tested. Itis possible that the majority of nutrient rich sedi-ment originates in themountains (particularly in China), in which case fertilizer would notcompensate for the extent of nutrient losses. More data is necessary to betterunderstand the nutrient cycle of the Mekong (Koponen et al., 2010).

Another proposed solution is『sediment augmentation』, or the deliberate addition of sediment downstream of adam. Sediment augmentation must account for the volume of sediment trapped inreservoirs as well as the downstream river』s decreased velocity, and therefore,decreased capac-ity to move sediment. The ecological effects of sedimentaugmentation must also be considered (MRC, 2009).

有一個想法是增加化肥的使用量可以補償由於懸浮物濃度下降導致的養分減少,但尚未試驗。大部分營養豐富的泥沙可能來自山區(特別是中國),在這種情況下,化肥不能補償養分的流失。需要更多的數據來更好地理解湄公河的養分循環(Koponen等,2010)。

另一個解決方案是「泥沙強化」(類似於人工降雨),或人為加大壩下游的泥沙。「泥沙強化」必須考慮水庫攔截沙量(造成補給減少)以及下遊河流流速下降造成輸移泥沙能力的下降。還必須考慮「泥沙強化」的生態效應(MRC,2009)。

【結論】

Conclusions

Thepotential impacts of dam development on sediment and therefore on nutrients,river and marine ecosystems and livelihoods are considerable. Comprehensivedata and as-sessments of the dynamics of sediment and nutrient transport in theMekong are limited, particularly those that account for the combined effects ofcascades of mainstream and tributary dams. While more studies are needed tobetter understand better the complex interactions of sediment in the Mekong, itshould also be recognized that uncertainty will never be completely removed by modelsand theoreti-cal predictions. Dam planners, managers and policy makers areadvised to proceed with caution, even when building dams that take into accountadaptive sediment management and which account adequately for uncertainty(Thorne et al., 2011). Given the complexity of interactions between sediment,nutrients, ecosystems and numerous other vari-ables, 「experiments in real life」should be closely monitored.

大壩開發對泥沙潛在的影響是相當大的,進而需要考慮對養分、河流和海洋生態系統以及生計的影響。湄公河流域的泥沙和養分遷移綜合數據和動力學評價有限,特別是那些考慮了干支流梯級聯合影響的數據。雖然需要更多的研究來更好地理解湄公河泥沙的複雜相互作用,但也應該認識到,模型和理論預測決不會完全消除不確定性。大壩規劃人員,管理人員和政策制定者應該謹慎行事,即使是在考慮到有適應性的泥沙管理情況下,還要充分考慮到不確定性(Thorne等,2011)。鑒於泥沙,營養物質,生態系統和許多其他變數之間相互作用的複雜性,應對原型密切監測。

{評述3}

確實,水庫下泄水流對下游的影響應該高度關注。河床河岸被水流侵蝕帶來一系列的、可能是大範圍的影響。「清水沖刷」(攜帶不飽和含沙量的水流)的效應直觀上看,首先與水流的不飽和程度和過程有關(沖刷作用力),其次與河床河岸的組成(抵抗作用力)有關。其影響的預測涉及到水流泥沙運動複雜的規律和難以獲取的各種邊界條件,目前各種手段的預測還難達到理想的精度。但「清水下泄」對沿河取水、航運、基礎設施、水生生態等都有複雜的影響。

瀾滄江景洪電站在建設前,採用一維和二維數學模型對下遊河道沖刷開展了研究。由於瀾滄江為山區河道,河床中存在大量的岩石、礁灘(故該航道整治的主要工作是炸礁),預測的結論認為「清水下泄」沖刷作用不大,靠近大壩處水位最大降幅(建壩前和建壩後相同流量的水位變化)不超過1m,隨著下游距離延伸,沖刷作用越來越小,隨著時間增加,作用也越來越小,影響範圍基本上局限在中國境內。

現在,景洪電站運行已10年(代表了瀾滄江梯級電站累積效應),下遊河道長時間長距離的「清水沖刷」效應似乎與當初的預測結論吻合。遺憾的是,沒有開展泥沙原型觀測來分析。下游國家經常指責上游電站「飢餓的水」在理論上會帶來非常多的負面影響,而我們拿不出數據說話。


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