禮儀之器：玉器文化之發展

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如果說，在舊石器時代晚期，或者更準確地說，在新舊石器時代交替並存時期，玉器主要是作為一種「玉石不分」的生產工具和武器，那麼到了新石期時代中晚期，玉器因自身特質而受人們格外喜愛、甚至崇拜，而逐漸發展演變為一種禮儀之器，成為人們社會地位、權力和文化的象徵。這時的玉器，多用於祭祀天地神靈和死後隨葬用品，還有一部分變成日常生活中的飾品和辟邪用品。

If we say that in the late Paleolithic, or more accurately, in the period of alternate coexistence of the Neolithic and Paleolithic, jade is mainly used as a tool of production and weapons, then in the middle and late Neolithic era, because of its own characteristics, jade is particularly loved, even worshipped, and gradually developed and performed. Become a ceremonial device, become a symbol of people"s social status, power and culture. At this time, the jade, mostly used for worship of the gods of heaven and earth and funeral supplies after death, and part of the daily life into jewelry and Exorcism supplies.

良渚文化獸面紋三叉形玉器

Liangzhu culture, animal carving, Trident jade

原始社會特別是中後期，玉器在整個社會中用於宗教、權利、禮儀已很盛行，成為原始社會重要的特徵，並對後世玉文化的發展起到了重要的作用。

In the primitive society, especially in the middle and late period, jade wares were widely used in religion, rights and etiquette in the whole society, which became an important feature of the primitive society and played an important role in the development of jade culture in later generations.

興隆窪文化玉錛

Jade culture in Xing Long wa culture

正如楊伯達先生在《古玉史論》中所指出的：「此長達6000年的玉文化已經了各個階段的發展，並逐步廣泛化、深化入，並終於成為文化主體，成為巫神媒介及華夏文明的第一塊奠基石。」

As Mr. Yang Boda pointed out in "Ancient Jade History" that "the jade culture of 6000 years has developed in various stages, and gradually widened and deepened into, and finally become the cultural subject, the first cornerstone of witch and God media and Chinese civilization."

紅山文化三孔形玉梳背

Red mountain culture three hole jade comb back

這一時期，出土了一大批製作精美、形制規範、紋樣統一的非實用玉器，具有明顯的原始巫術內涵。比如距今4500—5500年前的凌家灘——良渚文化遺址，三號墓隨葬玉器120多件，其中璧24件、琮33件。琮是良渚文化中最具代表性的玉器，不僅數量多，而且工藝精湛，基本形制有圓筒型和外方內圓型，體現了天圓地方的觀念，其「外八方像地之形，中虛圓，以應無窮。像地之德，故以祭地」。

During this period, a large number of non-practical jade articles with exquisite workmanship, standardized shape and uniform pattern were unearthed, which had obvious original witchcraft connotation. For example, 4500-5500 years ago Lingjiatan-Liangzhu Cultural Site, Tomb No. 3 was buried with more than 120 pieces of jade, including 24 pieces of Bi and 33 pieces of Wan. Yan is the most representative jade in Liangzhu culture. It is not only abundant in quantity, but also exquisite in craftsmanship. Its basic shapes are cylindrical and outer inner circle, which embodies the concept of heaven and earth. Its "shape of the eight-square image of the earth, in the virtual circle, should be infinite." Like the virtue of the land, it is to offer sacrifices to the land.

開封市博物館商代玉牙璧

Kaifeng Museum, Shang Dynasty, Yu Ya Bi

進入夏、商、周時期，玉器製作工藝技術長時間磨合統一，逐步形成了統一格調的禮玉文化。這一時期的玉器，其表現形式主要是用象徵的藝術手法，誇張雙眼以突出人物的神采，動態或立或跽（跪）均合程式。

In the period of Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, the jade making technology has been running in and unifying for a long time, and gradually formed a unified style of jade culture. Jade wares of this period, mainly in the form of symbolic art, exaggerated eyes to highlight the character"s demeanor, dynamic or standing (kneeling) are in line with the program.

陝西歷史博物館商代玉戈

Shaanxi History Museum Shang Yu Ge

玉材來自各地，同時和闐玉增多，成為王室、貴族的主要玉材。《周禮》記載的瑞玉有六種，蒼璧祭天、黃琮祭地、青圭祭東、赤璋祭南、白琥祭西、玄璜祭北。目前，出土夏代玉器較為集中的地方是河南偃師二里頭遺址，玉器長且寬大，薄而有刃，仿自工具或武器，但均不能實用，是統治者顯示威嚴和神聖的儀仗禮器。玉器是商代王室的專用品。

Jade materials come from all parts of the country, and at the same time, Hetian jade increases. There are six kinds of Ruiyu recorded in Zhou Li: Cangbi sacrifice to heaven, Huangwang sacrifice to earth, Qinggui sacrifice to the east, Chizhang sacrifice to the south, Baihu sacrifice to the West and Xuanhuang sacrifice to the north. At present, the unearthed Xia Dynasty jade is more concentrated in the Erlitou site of Henan Yanshi. The jade is long and broad, thin and knifed, imitated from tools or weapons, but can not be practical, is the ruler shows the dignity and sacred ritual. Jade articles are special products of the royal family of Shang Dynasty.

台北故宮博物院商代玉牙璧

Taipei the Imperial Palace Museum

旅順博物館西周龍形玉佩

Lushun Museum, Western Zhou dragon shaped jade

旅順博物館西周魚形玉佩

Lushun Museum, Western Zhou fish shaped jade

商代玉器出土多的地方是河南安陽的殷墟，如1976年發掘的「婦好墓」。婦好是商代著名帝王武丁的妻子，死後受到厚葬，曾出土玉器755件，代表著商代治玉的最高水平。西周東周玉文化延續夏商王朝，山西侯馬晉國發現盟誓玉圭、玉片，上面寫著盟誓內容，證明了玉用於禮儀、慶典、祭祀的實際情況。這一時期的玉文化有了新的發展，由祭祀用具逐漸向君子藉以修養品德的用具轉變，「言念君子，溫其如玉」、「彼其之子，美如玉」、「古之君子必佩玉」、「君子無故，玉不去身」，這種思想逐步成為崇玉、用玉的一整套制度。

The Shang Dynasty jade articles were excavated in many places, such as the ruins of Anyang, Henan, such as the tomb of women"s good, which was excavated in 1976. Fu Hao was the wife of Wuding, a famous emperor of the Shang Dynasty. After her death, she was buried heavily. She had unearthed 755 jade articles, representing the highest level of jade governance in the Shang Dynasty. The jade culture of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the Eastern Zhou Dynasty continued the Xia and Shang Dynasties. The Houma Kingdom of Jin in Shanxi Province discovered the jade tablets of the oath of alliance. The contents of the oath were written on them, which proved that jade was used in rites, celebrations and sacrifices. Jade culture in this period had a new development. It gradually changed from sacrificial utensils to the utensils used by gentlemen to cultivate their moral character. This idea gradually became a complete set of jade worship and use. System.

故宮博物院戰國雲紋玉韘

The Imperial Palace Museum, Warring States

到了戰國時期乃至秦漢，先有列國爭霸，後有連年戰爭，作為禮儀之器的玉器，使用中等級制度逐漸混亂，在形製造型上基本突破了禮儀器的限制，創造了精雕細刻、生動傳神、精緻靈巧的新型玉器。

In the Warring States Period and even the Qin and Han Dynasties, there were wars in succession, and the use of jade as a ritual tool gradually confused the middle-level system. It basically broke through the restrictions of ritual instruments in the form of manufacturing, and created a new type of jade carving, vivid, exquisite and ingenious.

陝西歷史博物館戰國玉磬

Shaanxi Museum of history Warring States jade chime

戰國時期的代表作有玉制多節佩、玉制龍首璜、玉制獸面紋琮、和闐黑玉帶鉤等。值得一提的是，漢高祖劉邦是一介農民出生，加之漢初百業待興，所以周朝興起的成組佩玉，雖然具有美感和禮儀作用，但製作困難，勞民傷財，佩帶時行走、勞作等極不方便，一度被嚴格禁止製作和使用。

The representative works of the Warring States Period include jade multi-section wear, Jade Dragon head, jade animal face pattern, and black jade belt hook. It is worth mentioning that Liu Bang, the ancestor of the Han Dynasty, was born as a peasant. In addition, a group of Peiyu, which emerged in the early Han Dynasty, was once strictly prohibited from production and use because of its aesthetic and etiquette functions.

漢代出廓璧

Han Dynasty

一直到漢武帝以後，隨著「絲綢之路」暢通，產自新疆和田的玉料大量運到內地，加上國力漸強，社會流行厚葬之風，玉器在日常生活和墓葬中大量使用。

Up to Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty, with the smooth passage of the Silk Road, a large number of jade materials from Hetian, Xinjiang, were transported to the mainland. In addition, with the growing national strength and the prevalence of heavy burial, jade articles were widely used in daily life and tombs.

故宮博物院南北朝雲虎紋玉璜

The Imperial Palace Museum, North and south, cloud and tiger pattern jade huang

國家博物館唐代玉辟邪

Jade in the Tang Dynasty in National Museum

兩晉、隋唐以及至五代、宋、遼、金以來，玉器作為禮儀之器的地位逐步降格了，而更多地變成了專供佩戴裝飾、陳設、觀賞、把玩的飾品了。禮玉地位下降的原因，根本上在於生產力的發展和社會的進步，以及由此導致的人們的思想觀念和審美情趣的變化。

Since the Jin, Sui and Tang Dynasties and the Five Dynasties, Song, Liao and Jin Dynasties, the status of jade as a ceremonial vessel has been gradually reduced, and more become a special ornament for wearing decoration, display, viewing and playing. The reason for the decline of the status of ceremonial jade lies in the development of productive forces and social progress, as well as the change of people"s ideas and aesthetic tastes.

天津博物館唐代兔形玉飾

Tianjin Museum rabbit shaped jade ornaments in the Tang Dynasty

應該說，在玉器發展演進過程中，陶器及後來的瓷器也在發展進步中。唐武德年間（公元618—626年），景德鎮有人將瓷器運至當時的國都長安城，進貢給唐高祖李淵，號稱假玉器。此後，瓷器類玉的說法貫穿以後整個年代。

大詩人杜甫就曾做詩稱：「大邑燒瓷輕且堅，扣如哀玉錦城傳」。禮玉衰落的另一個原因，就是佛教文化的興盛。如果說，儒家文化崇尚玉器，而在佛教七寶中，紫金、琉璃、白銀、玻璃、珊瑚，甚至排在了瑪瑙、硨磲的前面，這就動搖了一直以來禮玉在人們心目中的神聖地位。

It should be said that in the development of jade, pottery and later porcelain are also developing and progresses. During the reign of Wude in Tang Dynasty (618-626 AD), some people in Jingdezhen transported porcelain to Chang"an City, then the capital of the country, and paid tribute to Li Yuan, the ancestor of the Tang Dynasty. Since then, the argument of porcelain jade has gone through the whole era.

Du Fu, a great poet, once wrote a poem: "Dayi porcelain is light and strong, buckled like" the jade jade Jincheng biography ". Another reason for the decline of ritual jade is the flourishing of Buddhist culture. If we say that the Confucian culture advocates jade, and in the seven treasures of Buddhism, purple gold, glaze, silver, glass, coral, even in front of agate, inkstone, which has shaken the sacred status of ritual jade in people"s mind.

及至元、明、清之際，玉器從宗教、祭祀等神壇上走下來，更多地成了人們日常生活的一種裝飾品，各種形制和紋飾的玉器日益增多。用於佩戴和把玩的玉器，多是小巧可愛。用於陳設觀賞的玉器，則往往器型碩大。如清乾隆年間雕造完成的「大禹治水圖」，玉料采自新疆，重達5300公斤。

At the time of Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, jade came down from religious and sacrificial altars and became more and more an ornament in people"s daily life. Jade used for wearing and playing is mostly small and cute. Jade used for display and ornamental is often large. For example, the "Dayu flood control plan" completed by Emperor Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty, the jade material was collected from Xinjiang, weighing 5300 kilograms.

這一時期的一個重要特點，就是玉器由帝王和官府，逐漸走向民間。清代玉器得到了空前發展，不但數量多、做工精，而且大型的重器也多，品類、裝飾題材、雕琢工藝都進入了全面發展繁榮的階段，形成了玉器發展史上的最高峰，也為民間玉器技藝發展奠定了堅實基礎。

An important characteristic of this period is that jade articles gradually moved from the emperors and officials to the folk. Qing Dynasty jade has been unprecedented development, not only a large number of exquisite workmanship, but also a large number of heavy objects, categories, decorative themes, carving technology have entered a stage of comprehensive development and prosperity, forming a peak in the history of jade development, but also laid a solid foundation for the development of folk jade technology.

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